Subject Specialist Notes

SUBJECT SPECIALIST NOTES 

SOCIOLINGUISTICS 

1. Regional Dialect : Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the some geographical region. 

--- Geographical barriers are the major sources of regional variation of language. 

2. Sociolect : A variety of language that the members of a particular social class or social group speak. 

--- Social-class dialect refers to the linguistic variety characteristics of a particular social class. 

SPEAKER A 

-- I did it yesterday.

-- He hasn't get it.

-- It was she that said it. 

SPEAKER B

-- I done it yesterday

-- He ain't got it.

-- It was her what said it. 

3. Idiolect (Idio-own, personal)

The speech habits peculiar to a particular person. 

--- The language or speech of one individual at a particular period in life.

--- The way that a particular person uses laguage (OALD) 

--- Idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that continues elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variation.

--- The language he/she uses bears distinctive features of his/her own and his/her idiolect. 

--- In a narrow sense, what makes you a person's idiolect also includes such facts as voice quality, pitch and speech tempo and rhythm. 

4. Register : The style of a language used in a particular context.

--- It is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular communicative situation. 

EXAMPLE : When speaking officially or in a public setting, an English speaker may be more likely to follow prescriptive norm for formal usage than in a casual setting. 

5. Pidgin (Business English) Tok Pisin : An artificial language used for trade between speakers of different languages.

--- Pidgin may be built from words, sounds, or body language from a multitude of languages as well as Onomatopoeia.

--- A grammatically simplified form of a language, typically English, Dutch, or Portuguese, Some elements of which are taken from local languages, used for communication between people do not sharing a common language. 

--- Another term for Tok Pisin 

--- Denoting a simplified form of a language especially as used by a non-native speaker. 

EXAMPLE : Nigerian Pidgin English, Chinese Pidgin English, Hawaiian Pidgin English. 

--- Etymologically, Pidgin derives from a Chinese pronunciation of the English word 'business'.

--- Non-native speaker

--- Mixing of language 

--- Reduced Grammar & Vocabulary 

--- No language 

--- Simple Structure 

--- No Identification 

--- Unstable 

--- It is a new language which develops in a situation when speakers of different languages need to communicate but do not share a common language.

--- It is not a mother tongue  

6. Creole : Birth of a new language.

--- A mother tongue that originates from contact between two other languages and has features of both. 

--- Native speaker 

--- Mixed language associated with cultural and often racial mixture 

--- First language 

--- Complex Structure 

--- Have identification 

--- Stable 

--- When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole. Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language. 

--- It is mother language 

--- Larger Vocabulary 

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY 

Total Sounds in English : 44 

Consonants : 24

--- Place & Manner 

Vowels : 20 

--- Monothongs : 12

--- Dipthongs : 8 

1. Phoneme : (Linguistics) One of a small set of speech sound that are distinguished by speakers of a particular language. 

--- Any of the perceptually distinct units of sound in a specified language that distinguish one word from another. 

EXAMPLES : P, B, T, K, G and D in English words pad, pat, bat and bad. 

--- It is a smallest ''distinctive'' unit of sound. 

--- It is an abstract mental unit that represent a speech sound. 

--- In any language, we can identify a small number of regularly used sounds (vowels and consonants) that we call phonemes. 

--- A phoneme is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language. 

For Example : Pin - Pen

                        Pet - Bet 

--- We divide stream of sounds into small pieces that we call segments 

For Example : M ae n = Man 

--- It is not always easy to decide on the number of segments 

For Example : m ai n = Mine 

2. Phone : (Phonetics) An individual sound unit of speech without concern as to whether or not, It is a phoneme of some language. 

--- If speech sound, The smallest discrete segment of the sound in a stream of speech. 

3. Minimal Pair : In Phonology, minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases in a particular language, or phrase in a particular language, spoken of signed, that differ in only one phonological element. 

--- Two words that are distinguished by only one sound. 

Such as :

--- Sheep and Cheap are minimal pair words, but so are sheep and ship. Other examples include : Sheep and Sheet, Slip and Ship. 

Pin - Bin 

Tin - Kin 

Chin - Thin 

these words are different only in the initial sound.

Each different initial sound makes a word different from each other in meaning. 

So, /p/, /b/, /t/, /k/, /dz/, /Q/, and /s/, are considered to be different phonemes. 

--- and have distinct meanings

--- They are used to demonstrate that two phones represent two separate phonemes in the language.

4. Toneme : A phoneme that is distinguished from another phoneme only by its tone. 

5. Chroneme : In linguistics, A chroneme is a basic theoretical unit of sound that can distinguish words by duration only of a vowel or consonant. The noun Chroneme means 'time' 

Use of a chroneme views /a:/ as being composed of two segments : /a/ /:/, whereas in a particular analysis, /a:/ maybe considered a single segment with length being one of its feature. 

6. Allophone : Any of the speech sounds that represents a single phoneme, such as the aspirated K in Kit and the unaspirated K in skit, which are allophones of the phoneme k. 

7. Function Words (Unstress) : In English, We unstress non-essentials and non-content words in a sentence is called the function words.

--- These function words are made weaker and sometimes particularly disappear from the sentence. 

Function Words Includes : 

i. Articles : A, An, The 

ii. Pronoun : I, We, You, They, He etc 

iii. Auxiliary Verbs : Do, Has, Have, Could, Should, Would, Ought 

iv. Linking Verbs 

v. Conjunctions : FANBOYS 

vi. Prepositions : In, At, On, By, Above etc 

8. Content Words (Stressed) : 

Content Words Includes : 

i. Main Verbs : Go, Come, Eat, Run, Speak

ii. Nouns : Cars, Schools, Keys etc 

iii. Adjectives : Alert, Beautiful, Bad, Red, etc 

iv. Adverbs : Strongly, Quietly, There, Here etc 

v. Negatives : (WH Questions) : What, Where, When, How etc 

vi. Interjection : Hurrah! Alas! 

9. Pitch : The quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree of highness or lowness of a tone. 

10. Rhythm : A strong, regular, repeated pattern of movement or sound. 

11. Kinds Of Phonemes 

i. Segmental (What you say?) : ''Cat'' consists of three segments represented as ''C'', ''A'', ''T'' in the spelling. 

--- Phonologists are interested in why? 

For Example : There's an English word ''Cat'' and another English word ''Act'' but no ''Cta'' or ''tca''

--- Vowels/Vocoids : Non-friction, Open, Continuous 

--- Consonants/Contoids : frictions, Short, Lack of sonority 

--- Spelling  

ii. Supresegmental (How you say what you say) : Such as structure of syllables, tones, stress, and intonation. 

--- Pitch (melody) 

--- Stress (Force articulation) 

--- Juncture : (Transition) 

--- Intonation 

--- Word Stress 

--- Syllable 

--- Tone

12. Syllable Structure : 

Q (O having line on head) symbolizes syllables 

--- Q = Onset + Rime(Rhyme)- Nucleus - Coda 

--- The initial and final consonants are called Onset and Coda. The Core part of syllable structure is nucleus which is filled by vowel. 

--- The combination of nucleus and Coda is Rime(Rhyme) 

--- Possible Complex Onset : [pl], [bl], [fl], [sl], [kl], [gl], [pr] [br]

--- Impossible Complex Onset : [lp], [rp] 

13. Phonology 

--- Systems of sounds 

--- Functionally classified 

--- Study of sounds in a particular language 

--- Oral Cavity and Nassal cavity 

--- Two Types of Articulation 

i. Active [Movement] Ex: Tongue, Lips

ii. Passive : Ridge 

14. 7 Types of Place of Articulation 

i. Bilabials : Sounds are produced using lips 

--- /p/ - Voiceless 

--- /b/ - Voiced 

--- /m/ - Voiced 

--- /w/ - Voiceless 

ii. Labiodental : Articulation by lower lip and upper tetth 

--- /f/ - Voiceless 

--- /v/ - Voiced 

iii. Dental : When tip of tongue articulate upper front teeth 

--- /θ/ - Voiceless 

--- /ð/ - Voiced 

iv. Alveolar : When tongue touches alveolar ridge

--- /t/ - Voiceless 

--- /d/ - Voiced 

--- /s/ - Voiceless 

--- /z/ - Voiced 

--- /n/ - Voiced 

--- /r/ - Voiced 

--- /l/ - Voiced 

v. Palatals : It is also called Post-alveolar 

When tongue touches palatal, the sound which is produced is called palatals. 

--- /j/ - Voiced 

--- /⁠tʃ⁠/ - Voiceless 

--- /ʤ/ - Voiced 

--- /ʃ/ - Voiceless 

--- /ʒ/ - Voiced 

vi. Velar : When back of tongue touches the velum or soft palate, the sound which are produced are known as velar sounds. 

--- The velars can be lowered to allow the air to flow through the nasal cavity. 

--- /k/ - Voiceless 

--- /g/ - Voiced 

--- /ŋ/

vii. Glottal : When glottis is open & there is no manipulation or disturbance of tongue, the air passes out of the mouth 

--- /h/ - Voiceless 

15. Manner of Articulation 

1. Plossive/Stop : Produced by the obstruction of air-stream from the lungs followed by a release of the air stream. 

--- /p/

--- /b/

--- /t/

--- /d/ 

--- /k/

--- /g/ 

ii. Nassal : Produced by the release of the air through nasal cavity

--- /m/

--- /n/

--- /ŋ/

iii. Fricative : Produced by the release of a ''Friction like noise'' created by the air-stream escaping through a variant of narrow gaps in the mouth. 

--- /f/

--- /v/

--- /θ/

--- /ð/

--- /s/

--- /z/ 

--- /ʃ/

--- /dz/

--- /h/  

iv. Lateral Approximant : Produced by the obstruction of the air stream at a point along the center of the oral track, with incomplete closure b/w one or both sides of the tongue and roof of the tongue. 

/l/

v. Approximant : Produced by the proximity (closeness) of two articulators without turbulance (hard movement and friction like noise). (Semi-vowels)

--- /w/

--- /l/

--- /r/ 

--- /j/

Glides : /w/, /j/ 

Liquids : /l/, /r/ 

vi. Affricates : Produced by involving more than one of those manners of articulation. Firstly, produced the sounds in the alveolar ridge, then followed by or combined with fricative sounds. 

--- /⁠tʃ⁠/

--- /dz/

(Irshad karte hen waqt sabko milta he, zindagi badalne ke liye, lekin zindagi dobara nhi milti waqt badalne ke liye) 

Voiced : b, d, g, dz, v, ð, z, m, n, ŋ, l, r, j, zh, w

Voiceless :  p, t, k, tʃ⁠, f, θ, s, h, ʃ, , 

16. Phonetics : Study of human sounds, its description, classification & transcription 

--- General study of sounds 

--- The word 'Phone' means sound 

--- Scientific study of all human speech sounds.

--- It is general study of all human speech sounds and they are produced, transmitted and received. 

--- It is the initial level, that how sound is produced. 

17. Steve Christian : Two Types of learning a language 

i. Learning : Conscious, Formal, Rules 

ii. Acquisition : Unconscious, Informal, No Rules 

18. Lexicographer : Designs dictionary  

19. Deletion : The loss of a segment in a word also referred to as elision. 

20. Lax Vowels : Vowels that are comparatively short and can not be found in stressed open syllable. 

21. Neutral Vowel : In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa is a vowel sound denoted by the IPA symbol <> placed in the central position. 

22. Phonotactics : The study of the rules governing the possible phoneme sequences in a language. 

23. Homophones : Homophones are words with different meanings which are pronounced in the same way but are spelled differently. 

For Example : "Right" and "White" are homophones. 

24. Phonemics : The study of abstract units and their relationships in a language. 

25. Trill Consonants : Tr, Br, Rr, Perro

26. Tap or Flap Consonant :  It is a type of consonantal sounds, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as tongue) is thrown against another. 

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

27. Cognition literacy means "Knowing"

28. NLP : Natural Language Processing 

29. Conclusion is also called Conjecture. Conjecture is hypothesis that is not proved.

30. Deductive Reasoning : General agreement to specific conclusion. 

31. Domino Effect : When the first domino falls, It will hit the second one. Each domino will hit the next one and each domino that is hit will fall. 

32. Classical Conditioning : Pavlovian 

33. Reflex : An automatic instinctive unlearnt reaction to a stimulus.

34. Interlanguage : This theory is often credited to Larry Selinker who coined the terms Interlanguage and Fossilization.

35. Metalinguistics : Study language as an object. 

36. Regional Dialect : It is a language variety used by people living in the same geographical region. 

--- Geographical barriers are the major sources of regional variation of language. 

--- In the present day, the stability of local dialect seems to be decreasing. 

 

MORPHOLOGY 

Types of Morphology : 

1. Free Morpheme : Open Class(Content or lexical) words. Closed(Function or Grammatical) words 

2. Bound Morpheme : 

i. Affixes : Derivational(Prefixes & Suffixes) : Inflection(Suffixes) 

ii. Bound Base(-Cant, -cative, -ent) : 

iii. Contracted Forms : -ll, -iel, -ire, -ive).  

Categories of Prefixes 

1. Prefixes of time (Neo, Post, Pre, Fore, Hyper)

2. Prefixes of Degree (or size) (Macro, Over)

3. Prefixes of colour (Cyno, Leuk, Yantho)

4. Prefixes of Number (Bi, Tri, Uni, )

5. Prefixes of Location (Inter, Epi, Post)

6. Prefixes of Negations (Mis, Mal, Pseudo)

7. Prefixes of Attitude (Pro, Co, Counter) 

37. Allomorph : The ulternate phonological representation of a such morpheme is called Allomorph. 

Example : Boys /bciz/, Cats /Kaets/

                 Girls /gilz/, Boxes /boksiz/ 

38. Free Morphemes 

1. Lexical Morphemes or Content Words or open class words  

Noun, 

Adjective,

Adverb, 

Verb

2. Function Words or Closed Class Words 

Pronoun 

Preposition 

Conjunction 

Interjection

Articles 

39. Bound Morphemes 

It can not stand alone, It needs to be with the free morphemes. 

1. Inflectional Morphemes : Grammatical Affixes 

-s                  Plurals/ Simple Present 

-ed                      Past Participles

-ing                    Progressives 

-en                Past Participle 

-'s                  Possessives 

-er                     Comparatives 

-est                Superlatives  

2. Derivational Morphemes : It is the process of construction of new words by adding affixes like, Prefixes and Suffixes to free morphemes. 

40. Base : A base word/morpheme is the part of the word that has the principle meaning. 

--- Base are very numerous and most of them are free morphemes,; but are bound like -sent in 'consent.'. 

--- A word may contain are base and several affixes. 

--- Any unit to which affixes of any kind can be added (Derivational or inflectional) 

Examples : Happy is the base of unhappy; unhappy is the base of unhappiness. 

--- Some linguists consider it to be equivalent to the term 'Root' 

--- Other linguists maintain that the base is any part of a word when an affix is added to a root or stem. 

41. Root : Irreducible core/nucleus of a word.

42. Affixes : A morpheme that only occurs when attached to some other morphemes. 

43. Stem : Part of a word that exists before any inflectional affixes. 

--- Any base to which a grammatical affix may be added.

--- Stem mainly deals with inflectional affixation. 

Example : Works, Worker, Workshop 

44. Bound Root : A root that is not independent. 

--- ''Dent'' in dentist, dental, dentistry 

45. Mono/One Morpheme : Child, Help, Mean

46. Bi/two Morpheme : Childish, Helpless, Meaning

47. Tri/three Morpheme : Childishness, Helplessness, Meaningful

48. Four Morphemes : Gentle + man + li + ness, Un + desire + able + ity 

49. More than Four Morphemes : Anti + dis + estable + ish + ment + arti + an + ism 

50. Word Formation Process   

1. Etymology : 

--- A history of word.

--- The study of the sources and development of words. 

--- The study of the origin of the word. 

--- It comes from Latin but has Greek roots (etymon 'Original form' + logia, study of) 

--- Robotics (1941), Genocide (1943), Blackhole (1968) 

2. Coinage (Invention) : Invention of totally new words, Extension of a name of a product from a specific reference to a more general one. 

Example : Kleenex, Xerox, Kodak, Robotics, Genocide, Blackhole, Internet, Google, and Asirine

3. Eponyms :  Words based on a name of a person or a place. 

Example : Sandwich, Jeans, Watt 

George Washington : Washington DC 

Christopher Columbus : District Columbia 

James Watt : Watt 

Rudolf Diesel : Diesel 

James Parkinson : Parkinson's disease 

4. Borrowing : Talking over the words from another language. English borrowed a lot of Latin and French words. 

Examples : Leak (Dutch), 

Barbecue (Spanish)

Piano (Italian)

Sofa (Arabia)

Croissant (French), 

Yogurt (Turkish) 

Tango, Mango, Taco, Burito from Spanish 

Garage (French) 

Pizza, Mafia (Italian) 

Banana (Spanish) 

5. Compounding : Two or more words joined together to form a new word. 

Examples : Home + work : Homework

Pick + Pocket : Pickpocket 

Law + paid : lowpaid 

Note : The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. 

Coconut + oil 

Olive + Oil 

Baby + Oil 

It can be categorized into two 

1. Endocentric : An endocentric compound consists of a head. 

i.e. The categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifies, which restrict this meaning. 

For Examples : The English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier, is understood as a house intended for a dog.

2. Exocentric : An exocentric compound does not have a head, and their meaning often can not be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. 

For Example : The English compound whitecollar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing. 

--- In an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. 

For Example : a must-have is not a verb, but a noun. 

--- English languages allows several types of combinations of different word classes : 

N + N : Lipsticks, teapot

Adj + N : Fastfood, Softdrink 

V + N : Breakfast, Skydive 

N + V : Sunshine, Babysit

N + Adj : Capital intensive, waterproof 

Adj + Adj : Deaf-mut, Bitter-sweet 

--- Compound words can be written in there different ways : 

i. Open : With space between the parts of the compound;

e.g. toy store, flower pot

ii. Hyphenated : With a hyphen (-)

iii. Solid : flowerpot, washroom, pickpocket

Following are a few possible combinations

N + N = N : Sunrise, Dancing girl, Handshake, Airconditioning, Cigarsmoker, Maneating, heart-felt 

V + N = N : Rattlesnake, Call-girl, Dance-hall

Adj + N = N : Darkroom, Highbrow

N + Adj = Adj : Airsick, Battle-green 

Pro + N = N : She-pony, he-goat

Prep + V = V : Over-take, Undergo

Prep + N = N : Onlooker, Offday

Adj + Adj = Adj : Gray-green, Swedish-American 

--- Compounding is a recursive process. One pound itself may become a constituent of a large compound (I call it complex compounds). 

Examples : Light-house-keeper, Living-room-furniture

6. Blending : Similar to compounds, but in blending only parts of the words are combined. 

Examples : 

Motor + Hotel = Motel 

Breakfast + Lunch = Brunch 

Smoke + fog = Smog 

Teleprinter + Exchange = Telex 

Urine + Analysis = Urinalysis 

Gasoline + Alcohol = Gasohol 

Helicopter + Airport = Heliport 

Elcetro + Execute = Electrocute 

European + Television = Eurovision 

Multiple + University = Multiversity 

News + Broadcast = Newscast 

Parachute + Troops = Paratroops 

Television + Broadcast = Telecast 

Travel + Catalog = Travelogue 

Japanese + English = Japlish 

--- The beginning of the first word and the end of the last one are put together.

Spoon + Fork = Spork 

Brother + Romance = Bromance 

Advertisement + Entertainment = Advertainment 

Spanish + English = Spanglish

 

--- The beginnings of both the words are put together.

Cybernetics + Organism = Cyborg

Biographical + Picture = Biopic 

Hazardous + Material = Hazmat 

--- A whole word combined with a part of another one.

Guess + Estimate = Guesstimate 

Mock + Documentary = Mockumentary 

Cheese + Hamburger = Cheeseburger 

Mock + Cocktail = Mocktail 

Web + Seminar = Webinar 

Car + Hijacking = Carjacking 

Fan + Magazine = Fanzine 

--- The blending of celebrity couple names is done.

Brad + Angelina = Brangelina 

Ben + Jennifer = Bennifer

Safe + Kreena = Safreena 

7. Clipping : Shortening a word by deleting one or more syllables. 

Hamburger = Burger 

Gasoline = Gas 

Advertisement = Ad 

Professor = Prof. 

Doctor = Doc. 

Dormitory = Dorm.

Handkerchief = Hanky 

Business = Biz 

Parachute = Chute 

Refridgerator = Fridge 

Gymnasium = Gym 

Bicycle = Bike 

Mathematics = Maths 

Telephone = Phone 

Examination = Exam 

Influenza = Flu 

Laboratory = Lab 

Memorandum = Memo

Photograph = Photo 

Cafeteria = Cafe 

--- Back Clipping 

Ad, Gas, Doc, Memo, Exam 

--- Fore Clipping 

Phone, Gator, Chute, Versity

--- Middle Clipping 

Flu, Tec(detective), Jam(Pyjamas), Polly (Apollinarcs) 

--- Complex Clipping 

Cablegram (Cable telegram) 

Opt art (Optical Art) 

Org-man (Organization man) 

 8. Backformation : Changing the form of the word from Noun to Verb. 

Editor = Edit 

Television = Televise 

Babysitter = Babysit 

--- Assigning an already existing word to a new syntactic category.

Butter (N) = V To butter the bread 

Permit (V) = N an entry permit 

Empty (Adj) = V to empty the little bin 

Must (V) = N doing the homework is a must. 

9. Acronyms/Acronymy/Acronium 

Words derived from the initial of several words 

NASA, UNISEF, CO, WWW(World Wide Web), FAQ, ATM 

--- Pseudo-acronyms : These are used becuase when pronounced as intended, they resemble the sounds of other words.

ICQ = I seek you.

IOU = I owe you.

LASER = Light Amplification by stimulated emission of radiation 

DJ = Disc Jockey 

--- Zero Morpheme Rule/Empty Morpheme 

Sheep = Sheep 

Fish = Fish 

Hair = Hair 

Dear = Dear 

10. Reduplication : Process in Linguistics 

Root or Stem or even a whole word is repeated exactly or with slight change. 

--- New Word formed is called Duplicative 

Chae Wae, Chit Chat, Silly Billy, Foolish Person, 

Dilly Dally = To waste time in hesitation 

Willy Nilly = Whether you like or not 

11. Conversion(Zero Derivation) :  

It is the transfer of a word from one class to another or from one part of speech to another. 

To garage from garage 

To man from man 

--- It is a word formation process in which a word is assigned a change in syntactic category without any change in from. 

Ink (N) = Ink (V)

Call (N) = Call (V) 

Total (N) = Total (V) = Total (Adj) 

52. The concept of English as Global Lngauge by Kachru 

53. Kaets died at 26 To Autumn ''Ode on Melancholy'' 

54. A language which is used habitually by people whose mother tongues are different is Lingua Franca.

55. The Prelude : It is considered William WordsWorth's greatest autobiographical epic. 

56.  ''Sharper Spirit of Criticism" is modern note in the age of Chaucer. 

57. ''Humanism'' It is the chief characteristic of Renaissance. 

58. The movement of Renaissance was started in Italy by Boccaccio.

59. Petrarch is the father of Humanism.

60. Isogloss : The geographical boundary or delineation of a certain linguistic feature; the line marking this on map.

--- A line on a map that separates places where a particular feature of a language is different Iso means equal. glossa means ''Tongue, word. 

61. Locution : locutio(n-) from loqui speak. A word or phrase that particular people use in particular situations (Expression, Saying) 

62. Illocutionary : The aim of speaker in making an utterance as opposed to the meaning of the times used. (Of an action) performed by speaker or writing, for example ordering, warning, or promising. 

63. Flapping : d instead of t American. 

64. Rhotic : (Phonetic) Of an English accent that pronounces the letter 'r' wherever it appears, for example as miost Northern American Accents but no British RP. 

65. Glossogentics : The biological basis of formation and development of human language.  

66. Dentals (Interdentals) 

67. Nassals : The consonants having the air push through the narrow opening.

68. /l/, /n/ : the syllabic consonants.

69. Phonology : The study of the speech. 

70. Phoneme : The smallest unit of the speech sound. 

71. Allophone : The versions of one phone.

72. A sound pronounced with one puff of air is called ( A sound with one vowel)

73. The syllables having onset and Nucleus but not coda are called ''Open Syllable''.

74. The syllables having nucleus and Coda but no onset are called ''Closed Syllable'' 

75. Performance : is term introduced by Chomsky to describe 'The actual use of language in concrete situation'. 

76. Langue : The system of communication within a community. Language as a system rather than language in use; the formal rules, structures and limitations of language. 

77. Parole : A secret word or phrase known only to a restricted group.

78. Noam Chomsky : Born on December 7, 1928. 

79. The theory of Biolinguistics given by Noam Chomsky. 

80. TGG : Developed by Chomsky in 1950.

81. Reflections on Language : Book written by Noam Chomsky in 1975. 

82. Comparative Linguistics : The study of relationships between two or more languages and the investigation whether the common languages have a common ancestor. 

83. Smog & Motel : Portmanteau 

84. IPA : came into existence in year 1888. 

85. Morpheme : A minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.

86. Stress : It is the degree of face with which a sound of syllable is uttered.

87. Syllabic Consonants : The final /n/ in the word 'sudden' and 'mutton' are syllabic consonants. 

88. Semi-Vowels : /j/, /w/ consonants. 

89. Cooing : When the baby three month old, they can produce velar sounds /k/, /g/ and vowels /i/ and /u/ this stage is known as Cooing. 

90.  Deontic : A construction which expresses duty or obligation. 

91. Aspect : A form of verb that indicates the duration of the action, condition, or state denoted by the verb.

92. Phoneme : The most basic building block of language. 

93. Pragmatics : The function which describes language as a form of action. 

94. Francis Bacon : Father of Prose 

95. 60 Miles : Journey of Canterbury Tales 

96. Heart of Darkness : Joseph Conrad. 

97. Sapir Sapir & Benjamin Lee Whorf : Explained the relationship of language with thought. 

98. Utopic : Sir Thomas Moore 

99. Language is a source of developing theme.

100. Dramatic Monologue : Introduced by Robert Browning. 

101. Babbling : By the six month, A baby can produce Nassal and fricative sounds. This stage is called Babbling. 

102. Interlanguage : When you mix L1 and L2 and make another language. 

103. Code-Switching : While speaking one language if we shift to another language. 

104. Code-mixing : In conversation, If we use the words of two language.

105. Idiolect : The personal dialect of each individual speaker of a language. 

106. Register : Variations in a language according to use in specific situation. 

107. Jargon : Technical Vocab associated with a specific field or group. 

108. Diglossia : When we speak two varieties of one language in a society, one is formal and other is informal, it is called Diglossia. 

109. Deixis (Pointing via language) : This, That, These, Those 

110. Phonetics : Study of human speech sounds. 

111. Semantics : The study of meaning.

112. Discreteness : A little change in the sound can change the meaning describes, which propertyof human language. 

113. Quieter : The bound morpheme 'er' acts as an inflectional morpheme. 

114. Recursion : In a syntactic rule is applied more than once in generating a sentence than this is known as Recursion. 

115. Hyponymy : When the meaning of one form is included in another, the relationship between them is Hyponymy. 

''Horse'' is an hyponymy of ''Animal''

''Daisy'' and ''Rose'' are Hyponyms of ''Flower''

116. Performance is the term introduced by Chomsky to describe 'The actual use of language in concrete situation' 

117. Langue : The system of communication within a community.

The pair of terms introduced by Chomsky in 1965 to describe native speakers' intuitions about the grammatical correctness, or otherwise of sentences. Acceptable/Unacceptable. 

118. Who argues that language is a unique evolutionary development of the human species and distinguished from modes of communication used by any other 'Animal Specie' : Noam Chomsky.

119. Coherence : Which one of the following is a feature of speakers rather than their speech. 

120. Diglossia : The co-existence of two different varieties of language in a society which differ in their social status. 

121. Fricatives : The consonants having the air push through the narrow opening.

122. Syllable : A sound pronounced with one puff of air is called (a sound with one sound). 

123. Derivation : To form new words by attaching affixes with existing words. 

124. Morpheme : A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function or a minimum unit of word. 

125. Lexeme : A word or a group of words which has one meaning. 

126. Bound Morphemes : All affixes in English. 

127. Stem : The word to which affixes are attached is technically know. 

128. There are total 8 inflectional morphemes in English Languages.

129. Grammar : The study of the rules of language. 

130. 'Deep Structure' : 'I shot an elephant in my pajamas.'. 

131. Syntax is originally taken from Greek word. 

132. Semantics : The study of meaning of forms.

133. ''The table was listening to the music'', This sentence is syntactically correct, but semantically wrong. 

134. Collocation : Words frequently occuring together are termed as (Examples : Husband and Wife, Salt and pepper')

135. Synecdoche : When a part represents a whole entity. 

136. Pragmatics : The study of intended speaker meaning.

137. Co-Text : The set of words used in the same phrase or sentence is called linguistics context. 

138. Deixis : Words that cannot be interpreted at all without the physical context of the speaker. 

139. Inference : Any additional information used by the listener to connect what is said to what must be meant. 

140. Anaphora : A subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. 

141. Coherence : Linkage of ideas in a text. 

142. Motor Cortex : Which of the following part of the brain controls the articulatory muscles, Jaw, Tongue, and lynx. 

143. Arcuate Fasciculus : The part forms a crucial connection between Broca's area and Wernicke's area. 

144. Neurolinguistics : The study of language in relation to brain. 

145. Competence : According to Chomsky, the native speakers knowledge of his language, the system of rules he has mastered, his ability to produce and understand a vast number of new sentence. 

146. Langue : The set of all possible grammatical sentences in the language. 

147. Parole : The set of all utterances that have actually been produced in the language. 

148. Behaviorism : Skinner and Watson. 

149. According to Sapir - Whorf hypothesis we perceive the world as our language leads us to perceive it. 

150. Palindrome : The term derives from Greek Palin Dromo (Running back again) Examples : of word Palindrome include : Civic, Madam, Radar, Deified. 

151. Hypocorism : Hypocoristic forms of names are those that are used in familiar, friendly or intimate situations (usually, shortened or otherwise modified. Examples : Tom for Thomas, Jim for James.

152. In Morphology : It is used to refer to words formed by suffixing a vowel, (usually, -y or -ie) to monosyllabic root or by suffixing (-y or -ie [i]) after clipping has reduced a longer simplex or composed word to one syllable. 

153. Derivation : To form new words by attaching affixes with existing words. 

154. Morpheme : A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function or a minimum unit of word. 

155. Lemma : (Lemmas, lemmata), A form of a word that appears as an entry in a dictionary and is used to represent all the other possible forms. Fro Examples : ''Building'', represents ''Builds'', ''Building'', ''Built'' etc only headword lemmas are placed in the table. 

156. Lexeme : A minimal unit (As a word or stem) in the lexicon of a language; 'go' and 'went' and 'gone' are all members of the English lexeme 'go'

--- Lexemes are headword in dictionaries e.g. ''play'' can take many forms, such as playing, plays, played, 

--- A lexicon consists of lexemes. 

--- A word or a group of word which has one meaning.

157. Stem : The word to which affixes are attached is technically known as stem. 

158. Lexical Morphemes : Noun, Verb, Adjective 

159. Homonyms : Two words are homonyms if they are pronounced and spelled the same way but have different meanings. 

160. Schema : A conversational knowledge structure which exists in memory. 

161. Essay as a literary form had been invented by Montaigne.

162. 'Eminent Victorians' is written by Lytten Strachey who is famous for biographies. 

163. Discreteness : A little change in the sound can change the meaning describes which property of human language. p, b are discretes 

164.