The Enlightenment | Neo-Classical Period 1660 - 1790

The Enlightenment | Neo-Classical Period 1660 - 1790

Characteristics

The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Enlightenment or Neo-Classical Period, was a cultural, intellectual, and philosophical movement that took place primarily in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was characterized by a focus on reason, scientific inquiry, individual rights, and the pursuit of knowledge. Here are some key characteristics of the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period (1660-1790):

1. Rise of Reason and Rationalism 

2. Empiricism and Scientific Inquiry 

3. Humanism and Individualism 

4. Secularism and Skepticism

5. Universal Rights and Equality 

6. Social Contract and Government 

7. Critique of Absolutism 

8. Literary and and Artistic Expression 

9. Salons and Coffeehouses 

10. Encyclopedic Knowledge 

11. Tolerance and Humanitarianism 

12. Expansion of Education 

13. Critique of Superstition 

14. Influence on Political Revolutions  

Rise of Reason and Rationalism: Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the power of human reason and rational thought as the primary means of understanding the world, as opposed to relying solely on religious dogma or tradition.

Empiricism and Scientific Inquiry: There was a strong emphasis on empiricism, the idea that knowledge should be derived from observation and evidence. Scientific advancements and the Scientific Revolution played a significant role in shaping Enlightenment thought.

Humanism and Individualism: Enlightenment thinkers celebrated the potential and dignity of the individual. Humanism emerged, focusing on human achievements and potential, as well as advocating for individual rights and freedoms.

Secularism and Skepticism: The Enlightenment encouraged skepticism toward religious and traditional authority. Many Enlightenment thinkers advocated for a separation between religion and governance, advocating for secularism.

Universal Rights and Equality: Enlightenment thinkers promoted the idea of natural rights that all individuals possess inherently, including rights to life, liberty, and property. They emphasized equality and challenged the prevailing social hierarchies.

Social Contract and Government: Philosophers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu explored the concept of the social contract, where individuals agree to be governed in exchange for protection of their rights. These ideas influenced the development of democratic governance.

Critique of Absolutism: Enlightenment thinkers criticized absolute monarchy and advocated for limited government power, advocating for checks and balances and a separation of powers.

Literary and Artistic Expression: Literature, art, and philosophy flourished during this period. The neoclassical style, inspired by the art and literature of ancient Greece and Rome, became prominent.

Salons and Coffeehouses: Intellectual discussions took place in salons and coffeehouses, providing spaces for thinkers to exchange ideas and challenge prevailing beliefs.

Encyclopedic Knowledge: The Enlightenment saw the rise of comprehensive encyclopedias that aimed to compile and disseminate knowledge across various fields, contributing to education and intellectual growth.

Tolerance and Humanitarianism: Enlightenment thinkers promoted tolerance, advocating for religious and cultural diversity, and emphasized the importance of humanitarian values.

Expansion of Education: The Enlightenment promoted the idea that education should be accessible to a broader population, not just the elite. This laid the foundation for educational reforms and the spread of knowledge.

Critique of Superstition: Enlightenment thinkers sought to challenge superstition and traditional beliefs that were not supported by reason or evidence.

Influence on Political Revolutions: The Enlightenment's ideas about individual rights, representative government, and equality played a significant role in inspiring movements like the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

Overall, the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period marked a pivotal shift in Western thought, emphasizing reason, individual rights, and the potential for progress through knowledge and scientific inquiry. It laid the groundwork for modern democratic principles, human rights, and the spread of intellectual and cultural advancements.

Literary Terminologies 

During the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period (1660-1790), there were several literary terminologies and concepts that emerged or gained prominence. These terms reflect the intellectual, artistic, and philosophical trends of the time. Here are some key literary terminologies associated with this period:

1. Satire 

2. Rationalism 

3. Didactic Literature 

4. Epistolary Novel 

5. Essay

6. Neoclassicism 

7. Heroic Couplet 

8. Enlightenment Drama 

9. Philosophical Novel

10. Empiricism in Literature

11. Social Critique 

12. Picaresque Novel 

13. Societal Norm 

14. Literary Salons 

15. Aesthetic sensibility  

Satire: Satire was a popular literary form during this period. Writers used satire to criticize and mock societal issues, institutions, and individuals, often employing wit and humor.

Rationalism: Rationalism in literature reflected the Enlightenment emphasis on reason and logic. Writers sought to present ideas and arguments in a clear, rational manner, often influenced by scientific thinking.

Didactic Literature: Didactic literature aimed to instruct and educate the reader. Writers used this form to convey moral, philosophical, or political lessons to their audiences.

Epistolary Novel: The epistolary novel was a narrative form that consisted of letters exchanged between characters. It allowed for intimate exploration of characters' thoughts, emotions, and relationships.

Essay: Essays were a popular form of literary expression during the Enlightenment. Essayists used this form to explore and analyze a wide range of topics, including philosophy, politics, society, and human nature.

Neoclassicism: Neoclassicism was a dominant literary and artistic movement of the period. It drew inspiration from classical Greek and Roman literature, emphasizing order, reason, balance, and restraint in art and literature.

Heroic Couplet: The heroic couplet is a specific form of rhymed poetry, often used for satire and didactic purposes. It consists of two rhyming lines in iambic pentameter.

Enlightenment Drama: Enlightenment drama often explored moral and philosophical themes. Playwrights used drama to comment on society, politics, and human behavior.

Philosophical Novel: Some novels of the period incorporated philosophical ideas and debates into their narratives. These novels explored complex concepts through characters and plot.

Empiricism in Literature: Empiricism, the emphasis on observation and evidence, influenced literature. Writers often portrayed characters and situations realistically and based on human experience.

Social Critique: Literature of the period frequently included social critique, addressing issues like inequality, injustice, and the abuse of power in society.

Picaresque Novel: Picaresque novels featured rogue-like protagonists who navigated through various adventures and social strata, providing commentary on society's flaws.

Societal Norms: Many writers explored societal norms and conventions, often challenging or satirizing them to advocate for change or reform.

Literary Salons: Literary salons were gatherings where writers, thinkers, and artists discussed ideas and exchanged literary work. They played a significant role in shaping literary trends.

Aesthetic Sensibility: Writers during this period paid attention to aesthetics, focusing on symmetry, balance, and elegance in their literary works.

These literary terminologies capture the intellectual and artistic currents of the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period, reflecting the period's emphasis on reason, knowledge, social critique, and the exploration of human nature.

Themes 

The Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period (1660-1790) was marked by a variety of themes that reflected the intellectual, cultural, and philosophical shifts of the time. These themes were often explored through literature, art, philosophy, and other forms of expression. Here are some key themes of this period:

1. Reason and Rationalism

2. Individualism and Humanism 

3. Scientific Inquiry 

4. Empiricism 

5. Universal Rights and Equality 

6. Social Contract and Governance 

7. Critique of Absolutism 

8. Tolerance and Religious Freedom 

9. Progress and Optimism 

10. Education and Enlightenment 

11. Skepticism and Critique 

12. Cultural and Artistic renewal 

13. Public Sphere and Discourse 

14. Freedom of Expression 

15. Humanitarian Value 

Reason and Rationalism: The Enlightenment emphasized the power of human reason and rational thought as a means of understanding the world, solving problems, and making informed decisions.

Individualism and Humanism: This period celebrated the individual's potential and dignity, promoting the idea that individuals could shape their own destinies through reason, education, and personal effort.

Scientific Inquiry: The Scientific Revolution and its emphasis on empirical observation and experimentation influenced the Enlightenment. There was a focus on understanding and explaining the natural world through scientific methods.

Empiricism: A commitment to empirical evidence as the basis for knowledge and understanding, rejecting ideas not grounded in observation or evidence.

Universal Rights and Equality: Enlightenment thinkers advocated for the idea of natural rights inherent to all individuals, including the rights to life, liberty, and property. This concept challenged social hierarchies and promoted equality.

Social Contract and Governance: Philosophers like John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau explored the concept of the social contract, where individuals agree to be governed in exchange for protection of their rights. These ideas influenced political thought and the development of democratic governance.

Critique of Absolutism: Enlightenment thinkers criticized absolute monarchy and advocated for limited government power, checks and balances, and a separation of powers.

Tolerance and Religious Freedom: The Enlightenment promoted tolerance and religious freedom, advocating for the coexistence of different faiths and challenging religious persecution.

Progress and Optimism: Enlightenment thinkers believed in the potential for human progress through reason and education. They were optimistic about the possibility of improving society, institutions, and human well-being.

Education and Enlightenment: The emphasis on reason and knowledge led to a focus on education as a means of enlightening individuals and advancing society.

Skepticism and Critique: Enlightenment thinkers questioned traditional beliefs, superstitions, and dogmas. They sought to challenge and reform outdated practices and ideas.

Cultural and Artistic Renewal: The neoclassical movement celebrated classical Greek and Roman art and literature, focusing on balance, order, and restraint in artistic expression.

Public Sphere and Discourse: Enlightenment ideals were discussed and disseminated in public forums, salons, coffeehouses, and literary societies, contributing to a broader public discourse.

Freedom of Expression: Enlightenment thinkers championed freedom of speech and the press as essential for the exchange of ideas and the progress of knowledge.

Humanitarian Values: The Enlightenment promoted values of compassion, empathy, and concern for the well-being of all individuals, including those marginalized by society.

These themes collectively shaped the intellectual landscape of the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period, influencing literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts. The pursuit of knowledge, reason, individual rights, and societal improvement were central to the Enlightenment's impact on Western thought and culture.

Genres 

During the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period (1660-1790), various literary genres flourished as writers and thinkers explored new ideas, examined society, and expressed their thoughts through different forms of writing. Here are some of the genres that were prominent during this period:

1. Essay 

2. Satire

3. Novel

4. Epistolary Novel

5. Drama

6. Fable

7. Political Treatises 

8. Philosophical Discourses 

9. Pamphlet 

10. Salon Literature 

11. Historical Writing 

12. Autobiography 

13. Travel Writing 

14. Didactic Literature  

15. Philosophical Fiction 

Essay: The essay was a central literary form of the Enlightenment. Essayists like Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, and Samuel Johnson wrote essays on a wide range of topics, including morality, society, politics, and human nature.

Satire: Satirical works, such as Jonathan Swift's "Gulliver's Travels" and Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock," used humor and irony to criticize social and political issues of the time.

Novel: The novel gained popularity during the Enlightenment. Works like Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and Samuel Richardson's "Pamela" explored individual experiences, social dynamics, and moral dilemmas.

Epistolary Novel: The epistolary novel, composed of letters exchanged between characters, allowed authors to delve into characters' inner thoughts and emotions. Samuel Richardson's "Clarissa" is a notable example.

Drama: Enlightenment drama often explored moral and philosophical themes. Plays like Voltaire's "Candide" and Pierre de Marivaux's comedies addressed societal issues through theatrical performances.

Fable: Fables were popular for conveying moral lessons through allegorical stories. Jean de La Fontaine's fables and Aesop's fables were widely read during this period.

Political Treatises: Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Montesquieu wrote political treatises that discussed ideas of government, liberty, and the rights of citizens.

Philosophical Discourses: Philosophers, including Voltaire and Denis Diderot, wrote philosophical discourses that explored a wide range of topics, from religion and ethics to knowledge and reason.

Pamphlet: Pamphlets were used to disseminate ideas and arguments quickly. They were often used to engage in public debates on social, political, and religious issues.

Salon Literature: Literary salons facilitated discussions on various topics, leading to the creation of salon literature where thinkers exchanged ideas and debated issues.

Historical Writing: Enlightenment thinkers explored history as a means of understanding societal progress, patterns, and the consequences of human actions.

Autobiography: Autobiographical writings, such as Benjamin Franklin's "Autobiography," allowed individuals to reflect on their experiences and contributions to society.

Travel Writing: Exploration and discoveries during the Enlightenment led to an interest in travel narratives that documented encounters with different cultures and lands.

Didactic Literature: Didactic works aimed to educate and instruct readers in moral, ethical, and practical matters.

Philosophical Fiction: Some novels blended narrative storytelling with philosophical exploration, presenting characters and scenarios that embodied philosophical concepts.

These genres reflect the diversity of literary forms that emerged during the Enlightenment/Neo-Classical Period, encompassing a wide array of topics, styles, and perspectives. Writers of this era used these genres to convey their ideas, engage with society, and contribute to the intellectual and cultural shifts of the time.

Prominent Works of Enlightenment/Neoclassical Period 

The Enlightenment and Neoclassical period, spanning roughly from 1660 to 1790, was characterized by a significant shift in intellectual and artistic trends. During this era, there was a strong emphasis on reason, science, individualism, and a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, and philosophy. Here are some prominent works from this period:

1. "Leviathan" (1651) by Thomas Hobbes

2. "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689) by John Locke

3. "Candide" (1759) by Voltaire

4. "The Social Contract" (1762) by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

5. "Encyclopedia" (1751-1772) edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert

6. "The Wealth of Nations" (1776) by Adam Smith

7. "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (1776-1788) by Edward Gibbon

8. "The Marriage of Figaro" (1784) by Pierre Beaumarchais

9. "The Federalist Papers" (1787-1788) by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay

10. "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) by Mary Wollstonecraft

11. Art and Architecture

"Leviathan" (1651) by Thomas Hobbes: Although slightly before the official Enlightenment period, this work set the stage for Enlightenment thinking. It presents Hobbes' political philosophy and his ideas on the social contract and the nature of government.

"Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1689) by John Locke: This work laid the foundation for modern empiricism and influenced Enlightenment thinkers with its ideas on the acquisition of knowledge, the nature of the mind, and the concept of tabula rasa.

"Candide" (1759) by Voltaire: This satirical novella criticizes various societal and philosophical ideas of the time, including optimism, religious intolerance, and the abuse of power. It reflects Voltaire's skepticism and wit.

"The Social Contract" (1762) by Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau's treatise on political theory and the concept of the general will had a profound impact on Enlightenment thought and influenced later political movements.

"Encyclopedia" (1751-1772) edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert: This monumental work aimed to compile and disseminate knowledge across various fields, reflecting the Enlightenment emphasis on reason, education, and the spread of information.

"The Wealth of Nations" (1776) by Adam Smith: This seminal work laid the foundation for modern economics and discussed concepts such as the invisible hand, self-interest, and the division of labor.

"The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (1776-1788) by Edward Gibbon: This historical work analyzed the fall of the Roman Empire and offered insights into the causes of societal decline, drawing parallels with contemporary European society.

"The Marriage of Figaro" (1784) by Pierre Beaumarchais: This comedic play critiqued the aristocracy and social hierarchy, reflecting the changing attitudes towards class and authority during the Enlightenment.

"The Federalist Papers" (1787-1788) by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay: This series of essays advocated for the ratification of the United States Constitution and explored ideas of federalism, separation of powers, and individual rights.

"A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" (1792) by Mary Wollstonecraft: This work argued for women's rights and education, challenging prevailing notions of women's roles in society.

Art and Architecture: The Neoclassical period also saw a resurgence of interest in classical art and architecture. Prominent artists and architects like Jacques-Louis David and Robert Adam produced works that emphasized symmetry, order, and idealized representations of the human form, drawing inspiration from ancient Greece and Rome.

These works, among others, played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the Enlightenment and Neoclassical period. They reflected a shift towards rationalism, secularism, and a focus on human potential and progress.

Prominent Writers 

the Enlightenment and Neoclassical period produced a wide array of prominent writers who contributed significantly to literature and philosophy. Here are some of the notable writers from this era:

1. Voltaire (1694-1778)

2. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

3. David Hume (1711-1776)

4. Denis Diderot (1713-1784)

5. Adam Smith (1723-1790)

6. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

7. Jonathan Swift (1667-1745)

8. Montesquieu (1689-1755)

9. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

10. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794)

11. Alexander Pope (1688-1744)

12. Francesco Algarotti (1712-1764)

Voltaire (1694-1778): A French philosopher, writer, and wit, Voltaire was known for his sharp satire, wit, and criticism of religious and political institutions. His works include "Candide," "Letters Concerning the English Nation," and "Philosophical Dictionary."

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): A Swiss-French philosopher and writer, Rousseau's works focused on political philosophy and education. His notable works include "The Social Contract," "Emile," and "Confessions."

David Hume (1711-1776): A Scottish philosopher and historian, Hume's writings covered a wide range of topics, including empiricism, skepticism, and ethics. His influential works include "A Treatise of Human Nature" and "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding."

Denis Diderot (1713-1784): As the editor of the "Encyclopedia," Diderot played a central role in the dissemination of Enlightenment ideas. He also wrote philosophical works such as "Rameau's Nephew" and "D'Alembert's Dream."

Adam Smith (1723-1790): A Scottish economist and philosopher, Smith is known for his groundbreaking work "The Wealth of Nations," which laid the foundation for modern economics and discussed concepts such as the invisible hand and division of labor.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784): An English writer, lexicographer, and critic, Johnson is best known for compiling "A Dictionary of the English Language." He also wrote essays, literary criticism, and works such as "The Rambler" and "Rasselas."

Jonathan Swift (1667-1745): An Irish satirist and writer, Swift's works often critiqued society and politics. His most famous works include "Gulliver's Travels," "A Modest Proposal," and "A Tale of a Tub."

Montesquieu (1689-1755): A French political philosopher, Montesquieu's ideas on the separation of powers greatly influenced modern political thought. His notable work is "The Spirit of the Laws."

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): An English writer and advocate for women's rights, Wollstonecraft wrote "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman," arguing for women's education and equality.

Edward Gibbon (1737-1794): An English historian, Gibbon wrote "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," a comprehensive analysis of the fall of the Roman Empire that reflected Enlightenment historiography.

Alexander Pope (1688-1744): An English poet known for his satirical works and heroic couplets, Pope's writings include "The Rape of the Lock," "Essay on Man," and "The Dunciad."

Francesco Algarotti (1712-1764): An Italian philosopher, poet, and critic, Algarotti's writings contributed to the diffusion of Enlightenment ideas across Europe. He emphasized the fusion of art and science.

These writers and philosophers, among others, played a significant role in shaping the intellectual discourse and literary output of the Enlightenment and Neoclassical period. Their ideas and works continue to influence thought and literature to this day.